As to the fragments of morality that are irregularly and thinly scattered in those books, they make no part of this pretended thing, revealed religion. They are the natural dictates of conscience, and the bonds by which society is held together, and without which it cannot exist; and are nearly the same in all religions, and in all societies. The Testament teaches nothing new upon this subject, and where it attempts to exceed, it becomes mean and ridiculous. - Thomas Paine, Age of Reason, Book 2, Ch. 3
A Christian friend once expressed dismay at those who criticize their religion. Why, they wondered, we're people critical now when they hadn't been for the previous 2,000 years? As a matter of fact, critical views were silenced by the Church for most of that time, but critical writings have survived, largely through quotes in orthodox/Catholic refutations. I've compiled some examples here. They include the Pharisees and Jesus' family in the New Testament, the Roman historian Tacitus, Pliny the Younger, Lucian of Samosata, the physician Galen, bishop Dionysius of Corinth, the pagan philosophers Celsus, Hierocles & Porphyry, the Byzantine emperor Julian, the Manichaean Faustus, the Talmud, the Koran, Rabbi Nachmanides, the German scholar Reimarus, American founding fathers Thomas Paine & Thomas Jefferson, and some 19th century scholars.
The quotes are arranged by topic:
1. Credulity
2. Divine Incarnation
3. Miracles
4. Prophecies
5. Witness Credibility
6. Character Evaluation
7. Apostolic Doctrines
8. The Church
Note: If any Christians are offended by this, I accept your forgiveness in advance. Remember: if you don't forgive others, God won't forgive you (Matthew 6:15), and Hell is terribly overcrowded as it is.
1. CREDULITY
APOSTOLIC CREDULITY
When [the disciples] saw [Jesus] walking on the sea they thought it was a ghost. - Mark 6:49
FIRST CENTURY PAGAN CREDULITY
When the crowds saw what Paul had done [prompting a lame man to walk], they lifted up their voices, saying in Lycaonian, “The gods have come down to us in the likeness of men!” Barnabas they called Zeus, and Paul, because he was the chief speaker, they called Hermes. And the priest of Zeus, whose temple was in front of the city, brought oxen and garlands to the gates and wanted to offer sacrifice with the people. - Acts 14:11-13
SECOND CENTURY PAGAN CREDULITY
[T]o commence such a venture [the Glykon cult] they [Alexander and his co-conspirator] needed “fat-heads” and simpletons to be their victims, and such, [Alexander] said, were the Paphlagonians who lived up above Abonoteichus, who were for the most part superstitious and rich; whenever a man but turned up with someone at his heels to play the flute or the tambourine or the cymbals, telling fortunes with a sieve, as the phrase goes, they were all agog over him on the instant and stared at him as if he were a god from heaven. - Lucian, 2nd century [1]
[1] Alexander the False Prophet
CHRISTIAN CREDULITY
[T]he fabrication of the Galileans is a fiction of men composed by wickedness. Though it has in it nothing divine, by making full use of that part of the soul which loves fable and is childish and foolish, it has induced men to believe that the monstrous tale is truth. - Julian, 4th century [1]
Men who irrationally assent to any thing resemble those who are delighted with jugglers and enchanters, etc. For as most of these are depraved characters, who deceive the vulgar and persuade them to assent to whatever they please, this also takes place with the Christians. Some of these are not willing either to give or receive a reason for what they believe; but are accustomed to say, "Do not investigate, but believe; your faith will save you. For the wisdom of the world is bad but folly is good.”… - Celsus, 2nd century [2]
What is said by a few who are considered as Christians, concerning the doctrine of Jesus and the precepts of Christianity, is not designed for the wiser, but for the more unlearned and ignorant part of mankind. For the following are their precepts: "Let no one who is erudite accede to us, no one who is wise, no one who is prudent (for these things are thought by us to be evil); but let any one who is unlearned, who is stupid, who is an infant in understanding, boldly come to us." For the Christians openly acknowledge that such as these are worthy to be noticed by their God; manifesting by this, that they alone wish and are able to persuade the ignoble, the insensate, slaves, stupid women, and little children and fools. We may see in the Forum infamous characters and jugglers collected together, who dare not show their tricks to intelligent men; but when they perceive a lad, and a crowd of slaves and stupid men, they endeavor to ingratiate themselves with such characters as these. - Celsus, 2nd century [3]
The followers of Moses and Christ [are ordered] to accept everything on faith. - Galen, 2nd century [4]
[1] From Cyril of Alexandria, Contra Julianum, Bk II, NPNF2 Vol. VII
[2] From Origen, Contra Celsum, ANF IV
[3] Ibid.
[4] On the Prime Mover (c.190)
2. DIVINE INCARNATION
JESUS COULD NOT CONVINCE THE JEWS OF HIS DIVINITY
Jesus made converts of ten sailors, and most abandoned publicans; but did not even persuade all these to embrace his doctrines. Is it not also absurd in the extreme, that so many should believe in the doctrines of Christ now he is dead, though he was not able to persuade any one [genuinely] while he was living? - Celsus, 2nd century [1]
[W]hen [Jesus] became man what benefits did he confer on his own kinsfolk? Nay, the Galileans answer, “they refused to hearken unto Jesus.” What? How was it then that this hardhearted and stubborn-necked people hearkened unto Moses; but Jesus, who commanded the spirits and walked on the sea, and drove out demons, and as you yourselves assert made the heavens and the earth... could not this Jesus change the dispositions of his own friends and kinsfolk to the end that he might save them? - Julian, 4th century [2]
[1] From Origen, Contra Celsum, ANF Vol. IV
[2] From Cyril of Alexandria, Contra Julianum, NPNF2 Vol. VII
NOR COULD HE CONVINCE HIS DISCIPLES
If [Jesus] was a God, it was not proper that he should either fly, or be led away captive. And much less was it fit, that, being considered as a savior and the son of the greatest God, and also the messenger of this God, by his familiars and private associates, he should be deserted and betrayed by them. - Celsus, 2nd century [1]
[1] From Origen, Contra Celsum, ANF IV
NOR WAS HE CONCERNED WITH CONVINCING THE GENTILES
Why, then, did He who is called the Savior withhold Himself for so many centuries of the world? And let it not be said that provision had been made for the human race by the old Jewish law. It was only after a long time that the Jewish law appeared and flourished within the narrow limits of Syria, and after that, it gradually crept onwards to the coasts of Italy; but this was not earlier than the end of the reign of Caius, or, at the earliest, while he was on the throne. What, then, became of the souls of men in Rome and Latium who lived before the time of the Caesars, and were destitute of the grace of Christ, because He had not then come? - Porphyry, 3rd century [1]
[1] From Augustine's letter CII 1:8 to Deogratias (408 CE); NPNF Series 1, Vol. 1
NOR COULD GENTILES BE SWAYED BY THE APPEAL TO HEBREW PROPHETS
If the prophets bear witness to Christ, who bears witness to the prophets? You will perhaps say that Christ and the prophets mutually support each other. But a Pagan, who has nothing to do with either, would believe neither the evidence of Christ to the prophets, nor that of the prophets to Christ. If the Pagan becomes a Christian, he has to thank his own faith, and nothing else. Let us, for the sake of illustration, suppose ourselves conversing with a Gentile inquirer. We tell him to believe in Christ, because He is God. He asks for proof. We refer him to the prophets. He asks, What prophets? We reply, The Hebrew. He smiles, and says that he does not believe them. We remind him that Christ testifies to them. He replies, laughing, that we must first make him believe in Christ. The result of such a conversation is that we are silenced, and the inquirer departs, thinking us more zealous than wise. - Faustus [1]
[1] from Augustine, Reply to Faustus the Manichaean 13:1, NPNF I, Vol IV
3. MIRACLES
MIRACLES OF JESUS
He drives out demons by the prince of demons. - Pharisees, Matthew 9:34
Though [the Jews] saw such works, they asserted it was magical art. For they dared to call [Jesus] a magician, and a deceiver of the people. - Justin Martyr, 2nd century [1]
A Master has said, "Jesus the Nazarene practised magic and led Israel astray." - The Babylonian Talmud [2]
You should know that [Jesus] was a sorcerer and that all his wonders were performed through sorcery. - Nizzahon Vetus [3]
[1] Dialogue With Trypho ch. 69
[2] Sanhedrin 107b
[3] Chapter 205
BYZANTINE MIRACLES
[W]hen the pagans believe in the reality of such miracles as those which were granted to the merits of the saints, they ascribe them to magic arts. - Augustine, 5th century [1]
[The Arians] calumniated the miracles of St. Ambrose, and stoutly maintained that he hired persons to feign themselves blind, and lame, and dead, that when they were brought to him he might have the credit of miraculously healing them. - Paulinus, Deacon of Milan, 5th century [2]
[1] City of God 21:8
[2] Vita Sancti Ambrosii
MIRACLES AS PROOF OF DIVINITY
Let us grant that [wonders] were performed by you [Jesus]; but they are common with the works of enchanters, who promise to effect more wonderful deeds than these, and also with what those who have been taught by the Egyptians to perform in the middle of the Forum for a few oboli; such as expelling demons from men, dissipating diseases by a puff, [evoking] the souls of heroes, exhibiting sumptuous suppers, and tables covered with food, which have no reality. These magicians also represent animals as moving which are not in reality animals, but merely appear to the imagination to be such. Is it fit therefore that we should believe these men to be the sons of God because they worked these wonders? Or ought we not rather to say that these are the arts of depraved and unhappy men? ...Many other such persons [similar to Jesus] may be seen by those who wish to be deceived. Since, then, these persons can perform such feats, shall we of necessity conclude that they are Sons of God, or must we admit that they are the proceedings of wicked men under the influence of an evil spirit? - Celsus, 2nd century [1]
[T]he Christians will say, “We believe Jesus to be the son of God because he cured the lame and the blind” and [as you assert] raised the dead. O light and truth which clearly proclaims in its own words as you write that other men - and these depraved and enchanters - will come among you, possessing similar miraculous powers! Christ also feigns that a certain being, whom he denominates Satan, will be the source of these nefarious characters: so that Christ himself does not deny that these arts possess nothing divine, and acknowledges that they are the works of depraved men. At the same time likewise, being compelled by truth, he discloses both the arts of others and his own. Is it not therefore a miserable thing to consider from the performance of the same deeds, this man to be a God, but others to be nothing more than enchanters? For why, employing his testimony, should we rather think those other workers of miracles to be more depraved than himself? Indeed Christ confesses that these arts are not indications of a divine nature, but of certain impostors, and perfectly wicked characters. - Celsus [2]
The disciples of Jesus, not being able to adduce any thing respecting him that was obviously manifest, falsely assert that he foreknew all things; and have written other things of a similar kind respecting him... Some might in a similar manner unblushingly say of a robber and a homicide, who was punished for his crimes, that he was not a robber but a God; for he predicted to his associates that he should suffer what he did suffer. - Celsus [3]
No miracle can prove that the saying, “Out of Egypt have I called my son,” was spoken of Jesus; or that any prophet of the Bible ever said, “He shall be called a Nazarene.” ...All the martyrs with the unheard-of torments they endured will not convince me that the passage, "Out of Egypt have I called my son" refers to Jesus; or that the sentence, “He shall be called a Nazarene," stands in the existing writings of the Old Testament. - Reimarus, 18th century [4]
[1] From Origen, Contra Celsum, ANF Vol. IV
[2] Ibid.
[3] Ibid.
[4] Fragments of Reimarus, Sections 49 & 52
DIVINE INSPIRATION
No claim is made by the writer or writers or compilers of the Pentateuch to inspiration. None of the older Hebrew writers claim it. This most extravagant and unreasonable doctrine of inspiration—this claim that God Almighty wrote Jewish history, poetry, fable and romance—was never pretended, never thought of, never admitted, until long after the institution of Christianity. Then it was that priests, being unable to defend their religion against the assaults of reason, with sublime audacity invented the doctrine of inspiration. They stumbled upon a solitary and accidental expression of a New Testament writer, that “all scripture is given by inspiration of God” [2Tim3:16], and upon it they built the most gigantic pretense the world has ever known. It killed all argument, and silenced for centuries the voice of reason and conscience. That such a pretense was utterly unknown to the gospel writers we have the admission of Luke (i, 1-4): “Forasmuch as many have taken in hand to set forth in order those things that are most assuredly believed among us, it seemed good to me also, having had perfect understanding from the beginning, to write unto thee in order, most excellent Theophilus." There is no inspiration claimed here by the only gospel writer who possessed any education, and who properly prefaces his narrative with an allusion to the ordinary sources of his information. - Alfred O'Donoghue, Theology and Mythology; An Inquiry into the Claims of Biblical Inspiration (1880)
4. PROPHECIES
In the following passage from Jerome, we find that Porphyry correctly understood the nature of Biblical prophecy; that the prophets were post hoc interpreters – not predictors – of historical events:
Porphyry... contends that [the book of Daniel] was composed by a person in Judea...who lived in the time of Antiochus [160s BCE]. Hence he says, that Daniel does not so much narrate future as past events. Lastly, he asserts, that whatever is related as far as to the reign of Antiochus contains a true history; but that all that is said posterior to this time, as the writer was ignorant of futurity, is false. - Jerome, 5th century [1]
Note: This is the opposite with Christian interpretation. Justin Martyr explains that, to find Jesus in the Hebrew Bible, you have to read past events in future tense:
[T]he Spirit of prophecy speaks of things that are about to come to pass as if they had already taken place... The things which He absolutely knows will take place, He predicts as if already they had taken place. And that the utterances must be thus received, you will perceive, if you give your attention to them. - Justin, 2nd century [2]
You...argue that you believe in his divinity because the prophets spoke of him, but the fact is that you will not find a single instance in all the prophets of a prophet speaking of Jesus son of Mary. - Nizzahon Vetus [3]
Seeing that he could not escape being put to death, [Jesus] declared, that the ancient Prophets had foretold, that the Messias should die upon a cross, and that he should rise again on the third day. Here was the foundation for the continuing this plot, which otherwise had died with its author... But so it happens, the ancient Prophets appealed to are still extant; and there being no such prophecies of the death and resurrection of the Messias, they are a standing evidence against this story. - Thomas Sherlock [4]
[1] Preface to Commentary on Daniel, NPNF2 Vol. VI
[2] First Apology, ANF Vol. I
[3] Chapter 145
[4] The Trial of the Witnesses of the Resurrection of Jesus (1729)
THE MESSIAH
There is no Messiah coming for the Jewish people...all the prophecies relating to the Messiah were already fulfilled during the days of Hezekiah. - Rabbi Hillel [1]
The proper interpretation of the passage [Isaiah 11] is that it refers to Hezekiah and Sennacherib. - Nizzahon Vetus [2]
If you really want to know to whom the verse [Isaiah 16:5] refers look at the beginning of the passage and you will see that it refers to Hezekiah. ibid. [3]
There is no reference to any divinity here [in Isaiah 32:1], for the verse refers to Hezekiah. - ibid. [4]
[1] Talmud, Sanhedrin 98b
[2] Chapter 88
[3] Chapter 90
[4] Chapter 93
IMMANUEL
You may...point to the fact that Isaiah said, "Behold, the young woman is pregnant... and she shall call his name Immanuel" [Isa. 7:14] and argue on this basis that he is called God. On the basis of this sort of argument, however, I could find you other gods, such as Samuel son of Elkanah. Samuel, after all, was born to Hannah, who had been barren, in accordance with God's decree, and Samuel can mean "his name is God" (in the language of the priests, nomen suum Deus). Similarly, Ezekiel means strong God - in their language, omnipotenti Deo - Uzziah means forte Deo, and the same can be said of many other names in Scripture. Ch. 145
VIRGIN BIRTH
"Behold, a young woman ('almah) shall conceive and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel" [Isa. 7:14]. The heretics say that this was said of Jesus, and they argue: What sort of novelty is it that a young woman should conceive in the natural way through intercourse with a man? You must say, therefore, that Scripture refers to a virgin who had no such intercourse. The answer is: King Solomon said, ''There are threescore queens and fourscore concubines, and young women ('alamot) without number" [Song of Songs 6:8], and in Proverbs too it is written, "The way of a man with a maid ('almah)" [Prov. 30:19]; thus, even one who is not a virgin is called 'almah. Indeed, such a woman can even be called betulah) as it is written, "Lament like a betulah girded with sackcloth for the husband of her youth" [Joel 1:8]. Moreover, since they interpret this prophecy as a reference to Jesus, why did they not call him Immanuel? The fact is that in their entire Torah [New Testament] he is called only Jesus.
There can be no doubt, therefore, that Isaiah had recently married a young virgin, and this is what he said thereafter: "The Lord shall give you a sign" [Isa. 7:14], and when the sign will come you will know that my words are true and that God will protect you from these two kings, Pekah and Rezin. And what is the sign? This maiden who is young and of whom it is not known whether she is sterile or not shall conceive as soon as I have intercourse with her and shall give birth to a boy. And this is what is referred to in the verse, "And I came unto the prophetess and she conceived" [Isa. 8:3]; you see, then, that she conceived as a result of intercourse. Then she, the prophetess, called his name Immanuel through the influence of the holy spirit; i.e., God will help us in the face of these two kings, "for before the child shall know to refuse the evil and choose the good the land that you abhor shall be forsaken of both her kings" [Isa. 7:16]. The land will then become rich with everything good, and butter and honey will not be lacking in the land, as it is written, "Butter and honey shall he eat in accordance with his knowledge" [Isa. 7:15]; for when he is born these two kings will go on their way and leave the land in peace. Moreover, it is written, "And he said to me, call his name Maher Shalal Hash Baz, for before the child shall have knowledge to cry: My father, and My mother" - this shows that he had a father and mother - "the riches of Damascus and the spoil of Samaria shall be taken away before the king of Assyria" [Isa. 8:3-4], and all this took place more than three hundred years [700 - ed.] before Jesus was born. Moreover, on what basis should Isaiah's wife have been called a prophetess, as it is written, "And I came unto the prophetess" [Isa. 8:3], if not because the holy spirit rested on her when she had her first child and called him Immanuel? This too is the reference in the verse, "Behold, I and the children whom the Lord has given me are for signs and wonders in Israel from the Lord of hosts who dwells in Mount Zion" [Isa. 8:18]. Now, where did he get two children? It must be that Immanuel was also his son and they were both signs, one for the saving of the land and the other for the downfall of Rezin and Pekah. Furthermore, if you were right in maintaining that this maiden is the mother who was involved in that defiling union, then what sort of sign would this have been for Ahaz? After all, the events concerning Jesus took place more than three hundred years [700 -ed.] after the death of Ahaz. Indeed, when Hezekiah asked for a sign, saying, "What shall be the sign ... that I shall go up into the house of the Lord?" he was immediately given a sign which he saw with his own eyes: "Behold, I will bring back the shadow of the degrees..." [2 Kings 20:8-9; Isa. 38:8]... this, then, is the manner of all who give signs... - Nizzahon Vetus [1]
With regard to the verse, "Behold, a young woman conceives (harah)," you cannot explain harah except as a reference to the past, i.e., that she has already conceived, while Mary had not yet conceived and would not do so for another thousand [700] years. According to you, then, why does it say harah? It should have said tahar which would have been a reference to the future. Moreover, see what it says soon after: "For before the child shall know to refuse the evil and choose the good, the land that you abhor shall be forsaken of both her kings" [Isa. 7:16]. Now, if he was God, what is the meaning of "before the child shall know etc."? Why, he should have known and understood the difference between good and evil from the day of his birth if God was within him... As it is, however, the fact that we saw nothing in him during his youth to distinguish him from other infants leads us to disbelieve those wonders performed in his adulthood and to conclude that he performed them through magic in the manner of charmers, diviners, and observers of times. - ibid. [2]
[T]he words of prophecy you repeat, sir, are ambiguous, and have no force in proving what you [Justin] wish to prove. The scripture [Isaiah7:14] has not, "Behold, the virgin shall conceive, and bear a son," but, "Behold, the young woman shall conceive, and bear a son," and so on, as you quoted. But the whole prophecy refers to Hezekiah [Note: the child in Is7:14 is Isaiah's son, Emmanuel; but the section in chapter 9 - “unto us a child is born...” - does, indeed, refer to Hezekiah], and it is proved that it was fulfilled in him, according to the terms of this prophecy. Moreover, in the fables of [the] Greeks, it is written that Perseus was begotten of Danae, who was a virgin; he who was called among them Zeus having descended on her in the form of a golden shower. And you ought to feel ashamed when you make assertions similar to theirs, and rather [should] say that this Jesus was born man of men. - Trypho, 2nd century [3]
[1] Chapter 84
[2] Chapter 86
[3] From Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho ch. 67; ANF Vol. I
PRINCE OF PEACE
If [someone asks], "Concerning whom was this verse [Isaiah 9:6] said?" answer him: He is prophesying concerning the downfall of Sennacherib which was accomplished by this child, i.e., by Hezekiah. Thus he says, "And he called his name"; i.e., God, who is a "wonderful counselor, mighty, and an everlasting father," called him "prince of peace," as it is written, "And he said, Good... for there shall be peace and truth in my days" [Isa. 39:8]. - Nizzahon Vetus, ch. 85
The correct interpretation of the passage [Isaiah 9:6] is that it refers to Hezekiah. - ibid, Chapter 87
THE SUFFERING SERVANT
In terms of the true meaning of the section [Isaiah 53], it speaks only of the people of Israel, which the prophets regularly call “Israel My servant” or “Jacob My servant.” … [Y]ou will find in no book of the Jews, neither in the Talmud nor in the Midrash, that the messiah, the descendant of David, would be killed or would be turned over to his enemies or would be buried among the wicked. Indeed even the messiah whom you made for yourself was not buried... There is no indication that the messiah would be killed, as happened to your messiah. - Nachmanides, 13th century [1]
The entire passage [Isaiah 55] refers to Israel's exile. - Nizzahon Vetus, Ch. 99
"For you shall not go out with haste.... Behold my servant shall succeed" [Isa. 52:12-13] - refer to Israel when it leaves its exile. - ibid., ch. 109
"The 'servant of Yahweh,' who plays so conspicuous a part in the Deutro-Isaiah, the description of whom always has been applied to the Messiah, 'He is despised and rejected,' is not Messianic at all. It is the true Israel which is described; that is, those Jews who during their captivity were faithful to their national religion." - John Chadwick [2]
[1] Barcelona Disputation (1263)
[2] The Bible of To-Day (1878)
CYRUS
"Thus said the Lord to his anointed, to Cyrus" [Isa. 45: 1]. The heretics refer this entire passage to Jesus by saying that Cyrus is Jesus...It also says, "I have named you though you have not known me" [Isa. 45:4]. Thus, the verse testifies that this Cyrus whom you identify with Jesus did not know God. It is also written, "That they may know from east to west that there is none beside me; I am the Lord and there is none else" [Isa. 45:6]. According to them, however, the opposite is true, for now they will say that there are two powers - father and son. - Nizzahon Vetus
I WILL DWELL IN THE MIDST OF YOU
The true interpretation of the passage [Isaiah 52:5] is that it refers to the Second Temple. - Nizzahon Vetus, Ch. 115
THE REDEEMED
''And the redeemed of the Lord shall return and come to Zion with song" [Isa. 35:10]. This refers to Israel, whom God will redeem from the nations. The heretics, however, say that the verse refers to the souls which Jesus took out of hell. The answer is: It is written, ''And come to Zion with song''; now, will these souls return to Zion? And if he will tell you that Zion represents heaven, i.e., that they will return to the Zion in heaven, the answer is in the verse, "Zion shall be ploughed as a field" [Mic. 3:12] which would also have to be explained as referring to a heavenly Zion. This clearly shows that there is no Zion in heaven. - Nizzahon Vetus, chapter 94
"Preserve me, O God, for in you do I put my trust'' [Ps. 16:1]. The heretics say that the ecclesia is speaking. The answer is: "Their sorrows shall be multiplied who hasten after another" [Ps. 16:4], and they hasten after another god. The correct interpretation of the chapter is that David said it about himself. - ibid , Ch. 122
INTERPOLATING JESUS INTO THE HEBREW BIBLE
You utter many blasphemies, in that you seek to persuade [Jews] that this crucified man was with Moses and Aaron, and spoke to them in the pillar of the cloud; then that he became man, was crucified and ascended up to heaven, and comes again to earth, and ought to be worshipped. - Trypho, 2nd century [1]
[1] From Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho ch. 38; ANF Vol. I
TEXTUAL CORRUPTION
As the brethren desired me to write epistles, I wrote. And these epistles the apostles of the devil have filled with tares, cutting out some things and adding others. For them a woe is reserved. It is, therefore, not to be wondered at if some have attempted to adulterate the Lord’s writings also, since they have formed designs even against writings which are of less account. - Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth, 2nd century [1]
"Like a lion (ka'ari) my hands and my feet" [Ps. 22:17]. They are mistaken when they say that what is written is karu, foderunt [pierced] in the priests' language, and this is explained in the interpretation of the psalm. Nizzahon Vetus (chapter???)
[1] From Eusebius, Church History Vol. IV 23:12
5. WITNESS CREDIBILITY
THE BAPTISM OF JESUS
When you [Jesus] were washed by John you say that the spectre of a bird flew to you from the air. But what witness worthy of belief saw this spectre? Or who heard a voice from heaven adopting you for a son of God except yourself and some one of your associates who was equally a partaker of your wickedness and punishment? - Celsus, 2nd century [1]
[1] From Origen, Contra Celsum, ANF Vol. IV
THE GARDEN OF GETHSEMANE
Jesus prays in such language as would be used by a pitiful wretch who cannot bear misfortune with serenity, and though he is a god is reassured by an angel. And who told you, Luke, the story of the angel, if indeed this ever happened? For those who were there when he prayed could not see the angel; for they were asleep. - Julian, 4th century [1]
[1] Cyril of Alexandria, Contra Julianum, Bk. XII, NPNF2 Vol. VII
THE CRUCIFIXION
[T]he Evangelists were inventors and not historians of the events concerning Jesus. For each of them wrote an account of the Passion which was not harmonious but as contradictory as could be.… [I]f these men were not able to tell the manner of his death in a truthful way, and simply repeated it by rote, neither did they leave any clear record concerning the rest of the narrative. - Porphyry, 3rd century [1]
[1] From Macarius, Apocriticus 2:12
THE RESURRECTION
There is also another argument whereby this corrupt opinion can be refuted. I mean the argument about that Resurrection of His which is such common talk everywhere, as to why Jesus, after His suffering and rising again (according to your story), did not appear to Pilate who punished Him and said He had done nothing worthy of death, or to Herod King of the Jews, or to the High-priest of the Jewish race, or to many men at the same time and to such as were worthy of credit, and more particularly among Romans both in the Senate and among the people. The purpose would be that, by their wonder at the things concerning Him, they might not pass a vote of death against Him by common consent, which implied the impiety of those who were obedient to Him. But He appeared to Mary Magdalene, a coarse woman who came from some wretched little village, and had once been possessed by seven demons, and with her another utterly obscure Mary, who was herself a peasant woman, and a few other people who were not at all well known. And that, although He said: "Henceforth shall ye see the Son of man sitting on the right hand of power, and coming with the clouds." For if He had shown Himself to men of note, all would believe through them, and no judge would punish them as fabricating monstrous stories. For surely it is neither pleasing to God nor to any sensible man that many should be subjected on His account to punishments of the gravest kind. - Porphyry, 3rd century [1]
Is it to be believed that Christ, when he was alive, openly announced to all men what he was; but when it became requisite that he should procure a strong belief of his resurrection from the dead, he should only show himself secretly to one woman and to his associates? - Celsus, 2nd century [2]
This... is to be considered,—whether any one who in reality died, ever rose again in the same body: unless you think that the narrations of others are fables, but that your catastrophe of the drama will be found to be either elegant or probable, respecting what was said by him who expired on the cross, and the earthquake, and the darkness, which then according to you ensued. To which may be added, that he who when living could not help himself, arose, as you say, after he was dead, and exhibited the marks of his punishment, and his hands which had been perforated on the cross. But who was it that saw this? A furious woman, as you acknowledge, or some other of the same magical sect; or one [Peter] who was under the delusion of dreams, and who voluntarily subjected himself to fallacious phantasms,—a thing which happens to myriads of the human race. Or, which is more probable, those who pretended to see this were such as wished to astonish others by this prodigy, and, through a false narration of this kind, to give assistance to the frauds of other impostors. - ibid. [3]
Though the seals [on the tomb] did not prevent the cheat entirely, yet they effectually falsified the prediction. According to the prediction, Jesus was to rise on the third day, or after the third day. At this time the chief priests intended to be present, and probably would have been attended by a great multitude. This made it impossible to play any tricks at that time; and therefore the apostles were forced the hasten the plot: and accordingly the resurrection happened a day before its time; for the body was buried on the Friday, and was gone early in the morning on Sunday. - Thomas Sherlock [4]
The resurrection and ascension, supposing them to have taken place, admitted of public and ocular demonstration, like that of the ascension of a balloon, or the sun at noon day, to all Jerusalem at least. A thing which everybody is required to believe, requires that the proof and evidence of it should be equal to all, and universal; and as the public visibility of this last related act was the only evidence that could give sanction to the former part, the whole of it falls to the ground, because that evidence never was given. Instead of this, a small number of persons, not more than eight or nine, are introduced as proxies for the whole world, to say they saw it, and all the rest of the world are called upon to believe it. But it appears that Thomas did not believe the resurrection; and, as they say, would not believe without having ocular and manual demonstration himself. So neither will I; and the reason is equally as good for me, and for every other person, as for Thomas. - Thomas Paine [5]
No one saw his ascent, except that they maintain that Mary Magdalene and Peter the ass saw it and testified that he ascended. Nizzahon Vetus [6]
[1] From Macarius, Apocriticus 2:14
[2] From Origen, Contra Celsum, ANF Vol. IV
[3] Ibid.
[4] The Trial of the Witnesses of the Resurrection of Jesus (1729)
[5] The Age of Reason
[6] Chapter 145
6. CHARACTER EVALUATION
JOHN THE BAPTIST
“He has a demon” - Matthew 11:18; Luke 7:33
JESUS OF NAZARETH
“That imposter.” - Matthew 27:63
“He is beside himself.” Mark 3:21
“Behold, a glutton and a drunkard, a friend of tax collectors and sinners.” - Matthew 11:19; Luke 7:34
PETER AND THE APOSTLES
Jesus...collected as his associates ten or eleven infamous men consisting of the most wicked publicans and sailors, fled into different places obtaining food with difficulty, and in a disgraceful manner. - Celsus, 2nd century [1]
[T]ales of Jesus have been vamped up by Peter and Paul and a few others of the kind - men who were liars, devoid of education, and wizards. – Hierocles, 3rd century [2]
[Paul and the Apostles were] poor and country-dwelling men, seeing that they used to have nothing; certain wonders were worked with magical arts. Not that it is unusual however to do wonders; for the magicians in Egypt also did wonders against Moses, Apollonius also did them, Apuleius also did them, and any number have done wonders...so that they might receive riches from rich and impressionable women, whom they had led astray. - Porphyry, 3rd century [3]
[Peter & Paul] never even hoped that you would one day attain to such power as you [4th century Christians] have; for they were content if they could delude maidservants and slaves, and through them the women, and men like Cornelius and Sergius. - Julian, 4th century [4]
[1] From Origen, Contra Celsum, ANF Vol. IV
[2] From Eusebius, Against Hierocles, NPNF2
[3] From Jerome, Tract on Psalm 81
[4] From Cyril of Alexandria, Contra Julianum, NPNF2 Vol. VII
PAUL OF TARSUS
Festus said with a loud voice, “Paul, you are mad; your great learning is turning you mad.” - Acts 26:24
Some of the [first century Roman Christians] in their daily conversations called Paul a sorcerer, others a deceiver. - Acts of Peter 2:4 [1]
[Paul] is a liar and manifestly brought up in an atmosphere of lying. And it is beside the point for him to say: "I speak the truth in Christ, I lie not" (Rom9:1). For the man who has just now conformed to the Law, and today to the Gospel, is rightly regarded as knavish and hollow both in private and in public life. - Porphyry, 3rd century [2]
Paul...surpassed all the magicians and charlatans of every place and every time. - Julian, 4th century [3]
[Paul's teaching] is nothing better than the jargon of a conjuror, who picks up phrases he does not understand to confound the credulous people who come to have their fortune told. - Thomas Paine, 18th century [4]
[1] ANF VIII
[2] From Macarius, Apocriticus 3:32
[3] From Cyril of Alexandria, Contra Julianum, NPNF2 Vol. VII
[4] The Age of Reason
MARTYRDOM AS EVIDENCE
With respect to the sufferings of the apostles and disciples of Jesus, and the argument drawn from thence for the truth of their doctrines and assertions, I beg leave to observe to you, that there is not a false religion or pretence in the world, but can produce the same authority, and show many instances of men who have suffered even to death for the truth of their several professions. If we consult only modern story we shall find Papists suffering for Popery, Protestants for their religion. And among Protestants every sect has had its martyrs; Puritans, Quakers, Fifth-monarchy men. In Henry VIII's time England saw both Popish and Protestant martyrs; in Queen Mary's reign the rage fell upon Protestants; in Queen Elizabeth's Papists and Puritans were called sometimes, though rarely, to this trial. In later times, sometimes churchmen, sometimes dissenters were persecuted. What must we say, then? All these sufferers had not truth with them; and yet, if there be any weight in this argument from suffering they have all the right to plead it.
But I may be told, perhaps, that men by their sufferings, though they do not prove their doctrines to be true, yet prove at least their own sincerity: as if it were a thing impossible for men to dissemble at the point of death. Alas! how many instances are there of men's denying facts plainly proved, asserting facts plainly disproved, even with the rope around their necks? Must all such pass for innocent sufferers, sincere men? If not, it must be allowed, that a man's word at the point of death is not always to be relied on. - Thomas Sherlock [1]
[1] Trial of the Witnesses of the Resurrection of Jesus (1729)
7. APOSTOLIC DOCTRINES
PAUL'S “NEW COVENANT”
[Paul], sound in mind and understanding, instructed in the accuracy of the law of his fathers, who had so often cleverly recalled Moses to mind, appears to be soaked with wine and drunkenness; for he makes an assertion which removes the ordinance of the law, saying to the Galatians, "Who bewitched you that ye should not obey the truth," that is, the Gospel? (Gal. iii. 1). Then, exaggerating, and making it horrible for a man to obey the law, he says, "As many as are under the law are under a curse" (Gal. iii. 10). The man who writes to the Romans "The law is spiritual" (vii. 14), and again, "The law is holy and the commandment holy and just," places under a curse those who obey that which is holy! Then, completely confusing the nature of the question, he confounds the whole matter and makes it obscure, so that he who listens to him almost grows dizzy, and dashes against the two things as though in the darkness of the night, stumbling over the law, and knocking against the Gospel in confusion, owing to the ignorance of the man who leads him by the hand. - Porphyry, 3rd century [1]
[1] From Macarius, Apocriticus 3:33
PAUL'S DELAYED PROPHECY
[W]e may reasonably declare that it is full of twaddle to say that men will ever be caught up into the air [1Thess4:17]. And Paul's lie becomes very plain when he says, "We which are alive." For it is three hundred years since he said this, and no body has anywhere been caught up, either Paul's or any one else's. So it is time this saying of Paul became silent, for it is driven away in confusion. We must mention also that saying which Matthew gave us, in the spirit of a slave who is made to bend himself in a mill-house, when he said, "And the gospel of the kingdom shall be preached in all the world, and then shall the end come." For lo, every quarter of the inhabited world has experience of the Gospel, and all the bounds and ends of the earth possess it complete, and nowhere is there an end, nor will it ever come. So let this saying only be spoken in a corner! - Porphyry, 3rd century [1]
[1] From Macarius, Apocriticus 4:2
THE EUCHARIST
That saying of the Teacher is a far-famed one, which says, "Except ye eat my flesh and drink my blood, ye have no life in yourselves." Truly this saying is not merely beast-like and absurd, but is more absurd than any absurdity...that a man should taste human flesh, and drink the blood...and that by doing this he should have eternal life. For, tell me, if you do this, what excess of savagery do you introduce into life? ...Men have made up strange tales, but nothing so pernicious as this, with which to [beguile] the simple. - Porphyry, 3rd century [1]
[1] From Macarius, Apocriticus 3:15
THE SON OF GOD
Why did Satan tempt him in all these ways? ...if it had been true that Jesus was divine, why should Satan have troubled him so much and not been afraid of him? Nizzahon Vetus, Chapter 164
"My heart is melted like wax" [Ps. 22:15]. [Supposing this to be about the crucifixion] Why was he afraid? After all, they say that this was his will. Furthermore, he could have objected had he wished. - ibid. (CH?)
THE TRINITY
It is written in the book of Luke in the Gospels: "Whoever sins against the father will find forgiveness, and whoever sins against the son will find forgiveness; but he who sins against the impure spirit will not find forgiveness either in this world or in the world to come" [Luke 12:10]. But if the three are one, why shouldn't the person who sinned against the impure spirit find forgiveness? - Nizzahon Vetus, 13th century [1]
When, according to the Christian Trinitarian scheme, one part of God is represented by a dying man, and another part, called The Holy ghost, by a flying pigeon, it is impossible that belief can attach itself to such wild conceits. - Thomas Paine, 18th century [2]
[1] Chapter 223
[2] Age of Reason
8. THE CHURCH
EARLY CHRISTIANS
The gods have proclaimed Christ to have been most pious, but the Christians are a confused and vicious sect. - Porphyry, 3rd century [1]
[Christianity is] nothing else but depraved, excessive superstition. - Pliny the Younger, 2nd century [2]
[Christians are] a class hated for their abominations [and their] hatred of mankind [who believe] a most mischievous superstition. - Tacitus, 2nd century [3]
Who are you [Ignatius], you evil demon, who so zealously breaks our [Roman] commands, and persuades others to do the same, so that they should miserably perish? - Attr. to Trajan, Martyrdom of Ignatius, 2nd (or 3rd) century [4]
If you [Christians] had at any rate paid heed to [Jewish] teachings, you would not have fared altogether ill, and though worse than you did before, when you were with us [pagans], still your condition would have been bearable and supportable. For you would be worshipping one god instead of many, not a man, or rather many wretched men. - Julian, 4th century [5]
The Christians at first, when they were few, had but one opinion; but when they became scattered through their multitude, they were again and again divided into sects, and each sect wished to have an establishment of its own. For this was what they desired to effect from the beginning. But after they were widely dispersed one sect opposed the other, nor did any thing remain common to them except the name of Christians; and even this they were at the same time ashamed to leave as a common appellation: but as to other things, they were the ordinances of men of a different persuasion. What however is still more wonderful is this, that their doctrine may be [easily] confuted, as consisting of no hypothesis worthy of belief. - Celsus, 2nd century [6]
God may be great, and yet he may not have worthy interpreters [of his will]. But this is because they have not delivered their soul to be purified by the liberal disciplines; nor their eyes, which are profoundly closed, to be opened; nor the darkness which oppresses them to be purged away. - Julian, 4th century [7]
In the case of Peregrinus; much money came to him from [the Christians] by reason of his imprisonment, and he procured not a little revenue from it. The poor wretches have convinced themselves, first and foremost, that they are going to be immortal and live for all time, in consequence of which they despise death and even willingly give themselves into custody; most of them. Furthermore, their first lawgiver persuaded them that they are all brothers of one another after they have transgressed once for all by denying the Greek gods and by worshipping that crucified sophist himself and living under his laws. Therefore they despise all things indiscriminately and consider them common property, receiving such doctrines traditionally without any definite evidence. So if any charlatan and trickster, able to profit by occasions, comes among them, he quickly acquires sudden wealth by imposing upon simple folk. - Lucian, 2nd century [8]
[1] Against the Christians
[2] Letter to Trajan
[3] Annals 15:44
[4] Martyrdom of Ignatius, ANF Vol. I
[5] From Cyril of Alexandria, Contra Julianum, NPNF2 Vol. VII
[6] From Origen, Contra Celsum, ANF Vol. IV
[7] Epistle on the Duties of a Priest
[8] On the Passing of Peregrinus
4TH CENTURY MONKS
Those black-garbed people, who eat more than elephants, and demand a large quantity of liquor from the people who send them drink for their chantings, but who hide their luxury by their pale artificial countenances... whose only virtue lies in wearing the habit of mourners. - Libanius, 4th century [1]
[1] Oration For the Temples
4TH CENTURY CHRISTIAN AND MONASTIC SELF-DESTRUCTION
Those who refuse to approach the gods are possessed by a tribe of evil demons, who, driving many of the atheists to distraction, make them think death desirable, that they may fly up into heaven, after having forcibly dislodged their souls. Some of them prefer deserts to towns; but man, being by nature a gentle and social animal, they also are abandoned to evil demons, who urge them to this misanthropy; and many of them [the Cappadocian monks and hermits] have had recourse to chains and collars. Thus, on all sides, they are impelled by an evil demon, to whom they have voluntarily surrendered themselves, by forsaking the eternal and savior gods. - Julian, 4th century [1]
[1] Epistle on the Duties of a Priest
4TH CENTURY MONASTIC TEMPLE DESTRUCTION AND ILLEGAL LAND SEIZURES
After innumerable mischiefs [temple destruction, etc.] have been perpetrated, the scattered multitude unites and comes together, and they require of each other an account of what they have done; and he is ashamed who cannot tell of some great injury which he has been guilty of. They, therefore, spread themselves over the country like torrents, wasting the countries together with the temples: for wherever they demolish the temple of a country, at the same time the country itself is blinded, declines, and dies. For, O Emperor, the temples are the soul of the country... robbing these miserable people of their goods, and what they had laid up of the fruits of the earth for their sustenance, they go off as with the spoils of those whom they have conquered. Nor are they satisfied with this, for they also seize the lands of some, saying it is sacred: and many are deprived of their paternal inheritance upon a false pretense. Thus these men riot upon other people's misfortunes, who say they worship God with fasting. - Libanius, 4th century [1]
[1] Oration For the Temples, addressed to Emperor Theodosius
4TH CENTURY CHRISTIAN EMPERORS
[Constantine] who spoiled the temples [of their revenues and gifts]... suffered a greater punishment for taking away the sacred money [out of the temples], partly in what he brought upon himself; partly in what he suffered after his death, insomuch that his family destroyed one another, till there were none left. And it had been much better for him that some of his posterity should reign, than to enlarge with buildings a city of his own name: for the sake of which city itself all men still curse his memory, except those [Christians] who live there in wicked luxury, because by their poverty these have their abundance. - Libanius, 4th century [1]
[Constantius]... destroyed the temples... he indeed made presents of the temples to those who were about him, just as he might give a horse, or a slave, or a dog, or a golden cup. - Libanius [2]
[1] Oration For the Temples, addressed to Emperor Theodosius
[2] Ibid.
THE DEATH OF HYPATIA
There was a woman at Alexandria named Hypatia, daughter of the philosopher Theon, who made such attainments in literature and science, as to far surpass all the philosophers of her own time. Having succeeded to the school of Plato and Plotinus, she explained the principles of philosophy to her auditors, many of whom came from a distance to receive her instructions. On account of the self-possession and ease of manner, which she had acquired in consequence of the cultivation of her mind, she not unfrequently appeared in public in presence of the magistrates. Neither did she feel abashed in coming to an assembly of men. For all men on account of her extraordinary dignity and virtue admired her the more. Yet even she fell a victim to the political jealousy which at that time prevailed. For as she had frequent interviews with Orestes, it was calumniously reported among the Christian populace, that it was she who prevented Orestes from being reconciled to the bishop [Cyril of Alexandria]. Some of them therefore, hurried away by a fierce and bigoted zeal, whose ringleader was a reader named Peter, waylaid her returning home, and dragging her from her carriage, they took her to the church called Cæsareum, where they completely stripped her, and then murdered her with tiles. After tearing her body in pieces, they took her mangled limbs to a place called Cinaron, and there burnt them. This affair brought not the least opprobrium, not only upon Cyril, but also upon the whole Alexandrian church. And surely nothing can be farther from the spirit of Christianity than the allowance of massacres, fights, and transactions of that sort. - Socrates Scholasticus, 5th century [1]
[1] Ecclesiastical History, 7:15, NPNF2 Vol. II
CULT TACTICS
Cults separate initiates from family and friends in order to indoctrinate them with cult dogma and inoculate them from the “satanic” world outside the cult. This was the practice of 2nd century Christians, according to Celsus:
We...may see in their own houses, wool-weavers, shoemakers, fullers, and the most illiterate and rustic men, who dare not say any thing in the presence of more elderly and wiser fathers of families; but when they meet with children apart from their parents, and certain stupid women with them, then they discuss something of a wonderful nature; such as that it is not proper to pay attention to parents and preceptors, but that they should be persuaded by them. For, say they, your parents and preceptors are delirious and stupid, and neither know what is truly good, nor are able to effect it, being prepossessed with trifles of an unusual nature. They add, that they alone know how it is proper to live, and that if children are persuaded by them, they will be blessed, and also the family to which they belong. At the same time likewise that they say this, if they see any one of the wiser teachers of erudition approaching, or the father of the child to whom they are speaking, such of them as are more cautious defer their discussion to another time; but those that are more audacious, urge the children to shake off the reins of parental authority, whispering to them, that when their fathers and preceptors are present, they neither wish nor are able to unfold to children what is good, as they are deterred by the folly and rusticity of these men, who are entirely corrupted, are excessively depraved, and would punish them [their true admonishers]. They further add, that if they wish to be instructed by them, it is requisite that they should leave their parents and preceptors, and go with women and little children, who are their playfellows, to the conclave of women, or to the shoemaker's or fuller's shop, that they may obtain perfection [by embracing their doctrines]. - Celsus, 2nd century [1]
[1] From Origen, Contra Celsum, ANF Vol. IV
SCARE TACTICS
When I was still a Presbyterian minister, I was invited to address a Sunday-school camp-meeting at Asbury Park in New Jersey. There were other speakers besides myself; one of them, known as a Sunday-school leader, had brought with him a chart of the human heart, which, when he arose to address the children, he spread on a blackboard before them: “This is a picture of your heart before you have accepted Jesus. What do you think of it?” he asked the school. "It is all black," was the answer; and it was. He had drawn a totally black picture to represent the heart of the child before conversion. In all the literature of Pagandom, there is not the least intimation of so fearful an idea as the total depravity of human nature. The Pagans never thought, spoke, or heard of such a thing. It was inconceivable to them; they would have recoiled from it as from a species of barbarism. - Mangasar Mangasarian, 20th century [1]
I...really see nothing but [demonism] in the being worshipped by many who think themselves Christians. - Thomas Jefferson, 18th century [2]
[1] The Truth About Jesus – Is He A Myth?, 1909
[2] Letter to Richard Price, 1789
LOVE BOMBING
What is love bombing?
Cults make great ceremony of showing individual consideration for their members. One of the most commonly cited cult recruitment techniques is generally known as "love bombing" (Hassan, 1988). Prospective recruits are showered with attention, which expands to affection and then often grows into a plausible simulation of love. This is the courtship phase of the recruitment ritual. The leader wishes to seduce the new recruit into the organization’s embrace, slowly habituating them to its strange rituals and complex belief systems. At this early stage resistance will be at its highest. Individual consideration is a perfect means to overcome it, by blurring the distinctions between personal relationships, theoretical constructs and bizarre behaviors. - Dennis Tourish and Naheed Vatcha, Leadership, 2005
Emperor Julian commented on Christian love bombing in the 4th century:
[W]hen it came about that the poor were neglected and overlooked by the [Herodian] priests, then I think the impious Galilaeans observed this fact and devoted themselves to philanthropy. And they have gained ascendancy in the worst of their deeds through the credit they win for such practices. - Letter to a Priest 305
This is noted in the rabbinic tradition, while not directly mentioning Christians:
All alms and mercy done by the heathens are sins to them since they do them only to obtain glory thereby. - Bava Bathra 10:2 tr. Mishna
CHRISTIANITY IN GENERAL
Of all the systems of religion that ever were invented, there is none more derogatory to the Almighty, more unedifying to man, more repugnant to reason, and more contradictory in itself, than this thing called Christianity. Too absurd for belief, too impossible to convince, and too inconsistent for practice, it renders the heart torpid, or produces only atheists and fanatics. As an engine of power it serves the purpose of despotism; and as a means of wealth, the avarice of priests; but so far as respects the good of man in general, it leads to nothing here or hereafter. - Thomas Paine [1]
The story of Christ has not one trait, either in its character, or in the means employed, that bears the least resemblance to the power and wisdom of God, as demonstrated in the creation of the universe. All the means are human means, slow, uncertain, and inadequate to the accomplishment of the end proposed, and, therefore, the whole is a fabulous invention, and undeserving of credit.
The priests of the present day, profess to believe it. They gain their living by it, and they exclaim against something they call infidelity. I will define what it is. HE THAT BELIEVES IN THE STORY OF CHRIST IS AN INFIDEL TO GOD. - Thomas Paine [2]
[1] The Age of Reason (1795)
[2] The Age of Reason part III, section 4 (1807)
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SOURCES
Ante-Nicene Fathers
The Bible
Galen, On The Prime Mover
Jefferson, Letter to Richard Price, 1789
Lucian, Alexander the False Prophet
Mangasarian, The Truth About Jesus – Is He A Myth?, 1909
Nachmanides, Notes on the Barcelona Disputation, 1263
Nicene & Post-Nicene Fathers
Nizzahon Vetus, 13th century
Paine, Age of Reason 1795
Pliny the Younger, Letter to Trajan
Reimarus, Fragments, 1778
The Talmud
Tacitus, The Annals
Tourish, Leadership, 2005
